The Mi’kmaq (also spelled Mi’kmaw or L’nu, meaning “the people”) are the original inhabitants of Mi’kma’ki, a vast territory covering Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, parts of Newfoundland, and the Gaspé region of Quebec. Archaeological evidence shows that the Mi’kmaq have lived in Atlantic Canada for over 10,000 years, thriving as expert hunters, fishers, and gatherers. Seasonal life revolved around both land and sea, with offshore hunting of whales, porpoises, and seals being a vital skill.
The Wabanaki Confederacy
The Mi’kmaq are part of the Wabanaki Confederacy, an alliance of Eastern Algonquian-speaking nations including:
- Mi’kmaq
- Wolastoqiyik (Maliseet)
- Passamaquoddy
- Abenaki
- Penobscot
The Wolastoqiyik—whose name means “People of the Bright River”—traditionally lived along the Saint John River Valley in New Brunswick, practicing horticulture, fishing, and extensive trade.
First Contact with Europeans
The Mi’kmaq were among the first Indigenous nations to encounter Europeans. When John Cabot reached Newfoundland in 1497, it’s believed the Mi’kmaq were among those he met. By the 17th century, they had forged strong alliances with the French, becoming key allies in the colonial conflicts of the era.
Peace and Friendship Treaties
Between 1725 and 1779, the Mi’kmaq and Wolastoqiyik signed multiple Peace and Friendship Treaties with the British Crown. Unlike land surrender treaties in other parts of Canada, these agreements:
- Did not give up Indigenous land rights
- Affirmed rights to hunt, fish, and trade
- Created frameworks for peaceful coexistence
Notable treaties include the Treaty of 1725–26, the Halifax Treaties of 1760–61, and the Treaty of 1752, which is still cited in modern Canadian law to protect Mi’kmaq fishing and hunting rights.
Modern Treaty Rights and the Burnt Church Crisis
In 1999, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled in R. v. Marshall that Mi’kmaq people have the right to earn a “moderate livelihood” from hunting and fishing, based on treaty promises.
This led to the Burnt Church Crisis (1999–2002), when Mi’kmaq lobster fishers in New Brunswick faced violent opposition from non-Indigenous fishers. The conflict ultimately reinforced the legal recognition of Mi’kmaq treaty rights in the Atlantic region.
The Mi’kmaq in Newfoundland
The Mi’kmaq have lived in Newfoundland since at least the 17th century, moving seasonally between Cape Breton and southwestern Newfoundland. Communities along Placentia Bay and the west coast were integral parts of Mi’kma’ki.
Innu of Labrador
In Labrador, the Innu (formerly called Naskapi-Montagnais) are the region’s Indigenous people. Traditionally nomadic, they followed the migratory patterns of the caribou, lived in portable shelters, and relied heavily on hunting, fishing, and trapping for survival.
A Living Legacy
Today, the Mi’kmaq, Wolastoqiyik, Innu, and other Indigenous peoples of Atlantic Canada remain active stewards of their culture, language, and land. They continue to:
- Revitalize traditional languages
- Celebrate cultural practices such as powwows and drumming
- Defend treaty rights in legal and political arenas
- Share their stories through art, tourism, and education
Further Resources
- Mi’kmaq | The Canadian Encyclopedia
- The History of the Newfoundland Mi’kmaq
- The Mi’kmaq – Cape Breton University : Cape Breton University
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